Learning Objectives and CME/Disclosure Information

This activity is intended for healthcare providers delivering care to women and their families.

After completing this activity, the participant should be better able to:

1. List the recommended screening tests for all pregnant women
2. Discuss the risk factors for Hepatitis C infection

Estimated time to complete activity: 0.25 hours

Faculty:

Susan J. Gross, MD, FRCSC, FACOG, FACMG President and CEO, The ObG Project

Disclosure of Conflicts of Interest

Postgraduate Institute for Medicine (PIM) requires faculty, planners, and others in control of educational content to disclose all their financial relationships with ineligible companies. All identified conflicts of interest (COI) are thoroughly vetted and mitigated according to PIM policy. PIM is committed to providing its learners with high quality accredited continuing education activities and related materials that promote improvements or quality in healthcare and not a specific proprietary business interest of an ineligible company.

The PIM planners and others have nothing to disclose. The OBG Project planners and others have nothing to disclose.

Faculty: Susan J. Gross, MD, receives consulting fees from Cradle Genomics, and has financial interest in The ObG Project, Inc.

Planners and Managers:PIM Planners have nothing to disclose

Method of Participation and Request for Credit

Participants must read the learning objectives and faculty disclosures and study the educational activity.

If you wish to receive acknowledgment for completing this activity, please complete the test and evaluation. Upon registering and successfully completing the test with a score of 100% and the activity evaluation, your certificate will be made available immediately.

Joint Accreditation Statement

In support of improving patient care, this activity has been planned and implemented by the Postgraduate Institute for Medicine and The ObG Project. Postgraduate Institute for Medicine is jointly accredited by the Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education (ACCME), the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE), and the American Nurses Credentialing Center (ANCC), to provide continuing education for the healthcare team.

Physician Continuing Medical Education

Postgraduate Institute for Medicine designates this enduring material for a maximum of 0.25 AMA PRA Category 1 Credit(s)™. Physicians should claim only the credit commensurate with the extent of their participation in the activity.

Continuing Nursing Education

The maximum number of hours awarded for this Continuing Nursing Education activity is 0.2 contact hours.

Read Disclaimer & Fine Print

CLINICAL ACTIONS:  

Pregnant women are considered a ‘special population’ by the CDC. Due to the potential burden to pregnant women, offspring and partners, providers should ask all pregnant women and their partners about STIs, and ensure counseling, screening and treatment are available.

SPECIFIC STIs: 
HIV
SYPHILIS
HEPATITIS B
HEPATITIS C
CHLAMYDIA
GONORRHEA
BACTERIAL VAGINOSIS
TRICHOMONAS
HSV-2

Recommended Screening Tests for ALL Pregnant Women

HIV

• ‘Opt-out screening’ – screen at first prenatal visit after notifying patient of the need to be screened, unless patient declines
  • Screen in prepregnancy or as early as possible in pregnancy
• If patient declines, address concerns and discuss the following
  • A previous negative HIV test does not mean patient is still negative
  • Health benefit not only to patient but to fetus/offspring as treatment available to reduce perinatal transmission
• Retest in the 3rd trimester (before 36 weeks, if possible) if at high risk
  • Illicit drug use
  • STI during pregnancy
  • Multiple sex partners during pregnancy
  • Live in areas of high HIV incidence
  • Receiving care in facilities with an HIV incidence in pregnant women ≥1/1,000 per year
  • Partner has HIV
  • Signs or symptoms of acute HIV infection
    • Fever | Lymphadenopathy | Skin rash | Myalgias | Arthralgias | Headache | Oral Ulcers | Leukopenia | Thrombocytopenia | Elevated transaminase
• Rapid HIV testing should be performed on any woman in labor who has not been screened during pregnancy, unless she declines
  • If rapid HIV test positive, antiretroviral prophylaxis should be administered prior to receiving confirmatory test results
  • AAP recommends expedited HIV testing as soon as possible after birth for infants born to women with unknown HIV status
• NOTE: The USPSTF (June 2019) continues to recommend screening for HIV infection in all pregnant persons, including those who present in labor or at delivery whose HIV status is unknown. (A recommendation)

SYPHILIS

• Cases of congenital syphilis have increased 10 fold in the past decade
• Syphilis during pregnancy can lead to
  • Stillbirth | Miscarriage | Infant death | Maternal and infant morbidity
• Serologic tests should be performed at first prenatal visit
• Screening for syphilis infection is a 2-step process | Antepartum screening can be performed by manual nontreponemal antibody testing (e.g., RPR) by using the traditional syphilis screening algorithm or by treponemal antibody testing (e.g., immunoassays)
  • Traditional screening
    • Initial “nontreponemal” antibody test (ie, Venereal Disease Research Laboratory test or rapid plasma reagin [RPR] test) to detect biomarkers released from damage caused by syphilis infection
    • Followed by a confirmatory “treponemal” antibody detection test (ie, fluorescent treponemal antibody absorption [FTA-ABS] or T pallidum particle agglutination test [TP-PA])
  • Reverse sequence screening algorithm
    • Initial automated treponemal test (such as an enzyme-linked [EIA], chemiluminescence [CIA], or multiplex flow immunoassay [immunoblot])
    • Followed by a nontreponemal test
    • NOTE: If the test results of the reverse sequence algorithm are discordant, a second treponemal test (preferably using a different treponemal antibody) is performed
• Pregnant women with positive treponemal screening tests (e.g., EIA, CIA, or immunoblot) should have additional quantitative nontreponemal testing because titers are essential for monitoring treatment response
• If access to prenatal care is suboptimal, RPR test and treatment should be performed at time of pregnancy confirmation
• Serologic retesting in the 3rd trimester (28 weeks) and at delivery if the patient for patients at high risk including
  • Sex with multiple partners | Sex in conjunction with drug use or transactional sex
  • Late entry to prenatal care (i.e., first visit during the second trimester or later) or no prenatal care
  • Methamphetamine or heroin use
  • Incarceration of the woman or her partner
  • Unstable housing or homelessness
• Test any woman who delivers a stillborn or in the case of infant death
  • Untreated syphilis has a 40% infant death rate
• Do NOT discharge neonate if serologic status is unknown
  • Newborn infection may not be immediately obvious
  • Within a few weeks may develop
    • Developmental delay
    • Seizures
    • Birth defects such as bone deformation, blindness and deafness

Note: In September 2018, the USPSTF reaffirmed previous guidance and “recommends early screening for syphilis infection in all pregnant women.” (Grade A – Offer or Provide this Service)

HEPATITIS B (HBV)

• Screen during each pregnancy, preferably in the first trimester, regardless of vaccination status or history of testing
  • Use ‘triple panel’: Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), antibody to HBsAg, and total antibody to HBcAg (total anti-HBc)
• If patient underwent appropriately timed triple panel screening and has not had any new HBV exposures since triple panel screening, only HBsAg screening is required
• At time of admission for delivery, retest if patient
  • Is at high risk – more than one sex partner in previous 6 months, evaluation or treatment for STI, injection-drug use, HBsAG-positive sex partner
  • Was not screened prenatally
  • Has clinical hepatitis
• Always do HBsAg testing prior to giving the HBV vaccine to avoid misinterpretation
• Report HBsAg positive women to local or state health departments to ensure they are entered into a case management program to arrange access to appropriate vaccinations for contacts and prophylaxis for infants
  • If HBsAg positive, test for hepatitis B virus deoxyribonucleic acid (HBV DNA) to guide the use of antiviral medication to prevent perinatal transmission
  • If HBV DNA >200,000 IU/mL (7.6 log10 IU/mL): The American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases suggests antiviral therapy during pregnancy to further reduce perinatal HBV transmission

HEPATITIS C (HCV) 

• The CDC has updated HepC guidelines (2020)
  • Hepatitis C screening at least once in a lifetime for all adults aged ≥18 years, except in settings where the prevalence of HCV infection (HCV RNA-positivity) is <0.1%
  • Hepatitis C screening for all pregnant women during each pregnancy, except in settings where the prevalence of HCV infection (HCV RNA-positivity) is <0.1%
• USPSTF also calls for universal screening for HCV infection, including pregnancy

Recommended Screening Tests for Pregnant Women at Risk

CHLAMYDIA 

• Test all pregnant women who are <25 years old for Chlamydia trachomatis at the first prenatal visit
• Test all older women if at high risk:
  • More than one sex partner
  • A sex partner with concurrent partners or has an STI
• Retest in the 3rd trimester to prevent maternal postnatal complications and chlamydia infection in the neonate
• Test of cure by NAAT 3 to 4 weeks after treatment and retest within 3 months

GONORRHEA 

• Test all pregnant women who are <25 years old for N. gonorrhoeae at the first prenatal visit
• Test all older women if at high risk:
  • More than one sex partner
  • A sex partner with concurrent partners or has an STI
  • Inconsistent condom use in non-monogamous relationships
  • Previous or co-existing sexually transmitted infections
  • Exchanging sex for money or drugs
  • Consider consulting local public health authorities for further guidance on identifying those at high risk related to geographic location 
• Treat all positive patients immediately and retest in 3 months
• Retest in the 3rd trimester to prevent maternal postnatal complications and chlamydia infection in the neonate

Screen Only if Symptomatic

Bacterial Vaginosis (BV)

• Evidence does not support routine screening
• Evaluate and screen symptomatic women
• The USPSTF addresses BV screening during pregnancy and states the following

The USPSTF addresses BV screening during pregnancy and states the following
The USPSTF recommends against screening for bacterial vaginosis in pregnant persons not at increased risk for preterm delivery. (D recommendation)

The USPSTF concludes that the current evidence is insufficient to assess the balance of benefits and harms of screening for bacterial vaginosis in pregnant persons at increased risk for preterm delivery. (I statement)

Trichomonas

• Evidence does not support routine screening 
• Evaluate and screen symptomatic women

HSV-2

• Evidence does not support routine screening
• In the absence of lesions during the 3rd trimester, routine cultures for HSV are not indicated for women in the 3rd trimester who have a history of recurrent genital herpes
• Type-specific serologic tests may help identify pregnant women at risk for HSV and to help guide counseling regarding the risk of acquiring herpes during pregnancy

SYNOPSIS:

Recommendations for STI testing can vary based on certain considerations, including state laws. The CDC recommendations are considered broader, such that more women will potentially be screened, but are consistent with other CDC guidance with the intention of preventing adverse outcomes for pregnant women, partners and fetuses.

KEY POINTS:

• All pregnant women and their partners should be asked about STIs and counseled regarding personal risks as well as pregnancy and outcomes
• Pap Smears should be performed in pregnancy at the same frequency as nonpregnant women
  • Management of abnormal Pap tests differ in pregnancy

Screening at Delivery

SYPHILIS 

• Select groups of pregnant women, including women who are at high risk for syphilis or live in areas of high syphilis morbidity
• Pregnant women with no previously established status
• Pregnant women who deliver a stillborn infant

HIV

• Pregnant women not screened during pregnancy

HBV

• Women admitted for delivery at a health care facility without documentation of HBsAg test results should have blood drawn and tested as soon as possible after admission
• Women at high risk
  • Having had more than one sex partner during the previous 6 months, an HBsAg-positive sex partner, evaluation or treatment for a sexually transmitted disease, or recent or current injection-drug use
• Women with signs or symptoms of hepatitis

Note: CDC recommends universal hepatitis B vaccination within 24 hours of birth for medically stable infants >2000 grams

• Permissive language that allowed the vaccine to be delayed until after hospital discharge has been removed
• Administer hepatitis B vaccination and hepatitis immune globulin regardless of birth weight within 12 hours of birth for infants born to hepatitis b-infected mothers

CHLAMYDIA

• Pregnant women less than 25 years of age
• Continued high risk
  • New or multiple sex partners, sex partner with concurrent partners, sex partners who have a sexually transmitted disease

GONORRHEA 

• Continued high risk
  • Past or current injection-drug use, having had a blood transfusion before July 1992, receipt of an unregulated tattoo, having been on long-term hemodialysis, intranasal drug use, and other percutaneous exposures

Learn More – Primary Sources:

CDC: Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines 2021

Current Perspectives on Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission of Syphilis

ACOG Committee Opinion 752: Prenatal and Perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus Testing: Expanded Recommendations

CDC: A Guide to Taking a Sexual History

CDC: Prevention of Hepatitis B Virus Infection in the United States: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices

ACOG Clinical Practice Guideline 6: Viral Hepatitis in Pregnancy

CDC Recommendations for Hepatitis C Screening Among Adults — United States, 2020

Screening for Syphilis Infection in Pregnant Women: US Preventive Services Task Force Reaffirmation Recommendation Statement

Screening for HIV Infection: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement

Screening for Hepatitis B Virus Infection in Pregnant Women: US Preventive Services Task Force Reaffirmation Recommendation Statement

USPSTF: Screening for Bacterial Vaginosis in Pregnant Persons to Prevent Preterm Delivery

Screening and Testing for Hepatitis B Virus Infection: CDC Recommendations — United States, 2023

Vital Signs: Missed Opportunities for Preventing Congenital Syphilis — United States, 2022

Related ObG Topics:

Gonorrhea: CDC Diagnosis and Treatment Guidelines

Chlamydia: CDC Recommendations for Diagnosis and Treatment

Bacterial Vaginosis – CDC Diagnosis and Treatment Recommendations

Screening for Sexually Transmitted Infections – Who, When and How Often?

USPSTF Recommends Universal Screening for Hepatitis C

Syphilis: CDC Diagnosis and Treatment Guidelines