CLINICAL ACTIONS:  

Pregnant women are considered a ‘special population’ by the CDC. Due to the potential burden to pregnant women, offspring and partners, providers should ask all pregnant women and their partners about STDs, and ensure counseling, screening and treatment are available.

SPECIFIC STDs: 
HIV
SYPHILIS
HEPATITIS B
CHLAMYDIA
GONORRHEA
HEPATITIS C
BACTERIAL VAGINOSIS
TRICHOMONAS
HSV-2

SCREENING RECOMMENDATIONS INFOGRAPHIC

Recommended Screening Tests for ALL Pregnant Women

HIV

• ‘Opt-out screening’ – screen at first prenatal visit after notifying patient of the need to be screened, unless patient declines
  • Screen in prepregnancy or as early as possible in pregnancy
• If patient declines, address concerns and discuss the following
  • A previous negative HIV test does not mean patient is still negative
  • Health benefit not only to patient but to fetus/offspring as treatment available to reduce perinatal transmission
• Retest in the 3rd trimester (before 36 weeks, if possible) if at high risk
  • Illicit drug use
  • STD during pregnancy
  • Multiple sex partners during pregnancy
  • Live in areas of high HIV incidence
  • Receiving care in facilities with an HIV incidence in pregnant women ≥1/1,000 per year
  • Partner has HIV
  • Signs or symptoms of acute HIV infection
    • Fever | Lymphadenopathy | Skin rash | Myalgias | Arthralgias | Headache | Oral Ulcers | Leukopenia | Thrombocytopenia | Elevated transaminase
• Rapid HIV testing should be performed on any woman in labor who has not been screened during pregnancy, unless she declines
  • If rapid HIV test positive, antiretroviral prophylaxis should be administered prior to receiving confirmatory test results
  • AAP recommends expedited HIV testing as soon as possible after birth for infants born to women with unknown HIV status
• NOTE: The USPSTF (June 2019) continues to recommend screening for HIV infection in all pregnant persons, including those who present in labor or at delivery whose HIV status is unknown. (A recommendation)

SYPHILIS

• Serologic tests should be performed at first prenatal visit
• If access to prenatal care is suboptimal, rapid plasma reagin (RPR) test and treatment should be performed at time of pregnancy confirmation
• Retest in the 3rd trimester (around 28 – 32 weeks) and at delivery if the patient:
  • Is at high risk for syphilis
  • Lives in areas of high syphilis morbidity
  • Is previously untested
  • Has a positive screening test in the first trimester
• Test any woman who delivers a stillborn or in the case of infant death
  • Untreated syphilis has a 40% infant death rate
• Do NOT discharge neonate if serologic status is unknown
  • Newborn infection may not be immediately obvious
  • Within a few weeks may develop
    • (1) developmental delay
    • (2) seizures
    • (3) birth defects such as bone deformation, blindness and deafness

Note: In September 2018, the USPSTF reaffirmed previous guidance and “recommends early screening for syphilis infection in all pregnant women.” (Grade A – Offer or Provide this Service)

HEPATITIS B (HBV)

• Test for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) at the first prenatal visit regardless of previous testing or vaccination
• At time of admission for delivery, retest if patient:
  • Is at high risk – more than one sex partner in previous 6 months, evaluation or treatment for STD, injection-drug use, HBsAG-positive sex partner
  • Was not screened prenatally
  • Has clinical hepatitis
• Always do HBsAg testing prior to giving the HBV vaccine to avoid misinterpretation
• Report HBsAg positive women to local or state health departments to ensure they are entered into a case management program to arrange access to appropriate vaccinations for contacts and prophylaxis for infants
  • If HBsAg positive, test for hepatitis B virus deoxyribonucleic acid (HBV DNA) to guide the use of antiviral medication to prevent perinatal transmission
  • If HBV DNA >200,000 IU/mL (7.6 log10 IU/mL): The American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases suggests antiviral therapy during pregnancy to further reduce perinatal HBV transmission

Recommended Screening Tests for Pregnant Women at Risk

CHLAMYDIA 

• Test all pregnant women who are <25 years old for Chlamydia trachomatis at the first prenatal visit
• Test all older women if at high risk:
  • More than one sex partner
  • A sex partner with concurrent partners or has an STD
• Retest in the 3rd trimester to prevent maternal postnatal complications and chlamydia infection in the neonate
• Test of cure by NAAT 3 to 4 weeks after treatment and retest within 3 months

GONORRHEA 

• Test all pregnant women who are <25 years old for N. gonorrhoeae at the first prenatal visit
• Test all older women if at high risk:
  • More than one sex partner
  • A sex partner with concurrent partners or has an STD
  • Inconsistent condom use in non-monogamous relationships
  • Previous or co-existing sexually transmitted infections
  • Exchanging sex for money or drugs
  • Consider consulting local public health authorities for further guidance on identifying those at high risk related to geographic location 
• Treat all positive patients immediately and retest in 3 months
• Retest in the 3rd trimester to prevent maternal postnatal complications and chlamydia infection in the neonate

HEPATITIS C (HCV) 

• Screen high risk women at the first prenatal visit:
  • Key risk factor: past or current injection drug use
  • Blood transfusion before July 1992
  • Unregulated tattoo
  • Long-term hemodialysis
  • Intranasal drug use and other percutaneous exposures
• Currently, CDC is updating guidelines with the following recommendations in draft form
  • All adults 18 years and older (except in settings where the prevalence is > 0.1%)
  • All pregnant persons should be screened for HCV during each pregnancy (except in settings where the prevalence of HCV infection is > 0.1%)
  • All persons with risk factors (eg., persons with HIV, prior recipients of blood transfusions, persons who ever injected drugs and shared needles, and persons who are born to an HCV-infected mother) should be tested for HCV, with periodic testing while risk factors persist
• No established treatment regimen exists in pregnancy – provide counseling and supportive care
• No vaccine is currently available
• NOTE:  SMFM has released new guidance on HCV screening in pregnancy with additional risk factors (also see ‘Related ObG Topics’ below)
  • Long-term hemodialysis
  • Recipients of clotting factor concentrates produced before 1987
  • Recipients of blood products from donor who later tested positive for HCV
  • History of incarceration
  • Women seeking evaluation or care for sexually transmitted infection including HIV
  • Unexplained chronic liver disease (including persistently elevated ALT)

Screen Only if Symptomatic

Bacterial Vaginosis (BV)

• Evidence does not support routine screening
• Evaluate and screen symptomatic women

Trichomonas

• Evidence does not support routine screening 
• Evaluate and screen symptomatic women

HSV-2

• Evidence does not support routine screening
• In the absence of lesions during the 3rd trimester, routine cultures for HSV are not indicated for women in the 3rd trimester who have a history of recurrent genital herpes
• Type-specific serologic tests may help identify pregnant women at risk for HSV and to help guide counseling regarding the risk of acquiring herpes during pregnancy

SYNOPSIS:

Recommendations for STD testing can vary based on certain considerations, including state laws. The CDC recommendations are considered broader, such that more women will potentially be screened, but are consistent with other CDC guidance with the intention of preventing adverse outcomes for pregnant women, partners and fetuses.

CDC SCREENING RECOMMENDATIONS:

Click the chart image below to access the summary of the CDC Screening Recommendations

CDC Screening Recommendations

KEY POINTS:

• All pregnant women and their partners should be asked about STDs and counseled regarding personal risks as well as pregnancy and outcomes
• Pap Smears should be performed in pregnancy at the same frequency as nonpregnant women
  • Management of abnormal Pap tests differ in pregnancy

Screening at Delivery

SYPHILIS 

• Select groups of pregnant women, including women who are at high risk for syphilis or live in areas of high syphilis morbidity
• Pregnant women with no previously established status
• Pregnant women who deliver a stillborn infant

HIV

• Pregnant women not screened during pregnancy

HBV

• Women admitted for delivery at a health care facility without documentation of HBsAg test results should have blood drawn and tested as soon as possible after admission
• Women at high risk
  • Having had more than one sex partner during the previous 6 months, an HBsAg-positive sex partner, evaluation or treatment for a sexually transmitted disease, or recent or current injection-drug use
• Women with signs or symptoms of hepatitis

Note: CDC recommends universal hepatitis B vaccination within 24 hours of birth for medically stable infants >2000 grams

• Permissive language that allowed the vaccine to be delayed until after hospital discharge has been removed
• Administer hepatitis B vaccination and hepatitis immune globulin regardless of birth weight within 12 hours of birth for infants born to hepatitis b-infected mothers

CHLAMYDIA

• Pregnant women less than 25 years of age
• Continued high risk
  • New or multiple sex partners, sex partner with concurrent partners, sex partners who have a sexually transmitted disease

GONORRHEA 

• Continued high risk
  • Past or current injection-drug use, having had a blood transfusion before July 1992, receipt of an unregulated tattoo, having been on long-term hemodialysis, intranasal drug use, and other percutaneous exposures

Learn More – Primary Sources:

CDC: Pregnant Women – 2015 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines

CDC: Clinician Timeline for Screening Syphilis, HIV, HBV, HCV, Chlamydia, and Gonorrhea

CDC: Syphilis Fact Sheet (Detailed)

Current Perspectives on Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission of Syphilis

ACOG Committee Opinion 752: Prenatal and Perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus Testing: Expanded Recommendations

CDC: A Guide to Taking a Sexual History

ACOG Practice Advisory: Hepatitis B Prevention

Screening for Syphilis Infection in Pregnant Women: US Preventive Services Task Force Reaffirmation Recommendation Statement

Screening for HIV Infection: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement

Screening for Hepatitis B Virus Infection in Pregnant Women: US Preventive Services Task Force Reaffirmation Recommendation Statement

Related ObG Topics:

SMFM Releases Guidelines on Screening and Management of Hepatitis C in Pregnancy 

Gonorrhea: CDC Diagnosis and Treatment Guidelines

Gonorrhea Treatment Pearls

Chlamydia: CDC Recommendations for Diagnosis and Treatment

Bacterial Vaginosis – CDC Diagnosis and Treatment Recommendations

Screening & Treatment of Gynecologic infections in the HIV-Positive Woman

Screening for Sexually Transmitted Diseases – Who, When and How Often?

Abnormal Pap in Pregnancy: Options and Follow Up